Complicated pneumonia with empyema caused by streptococcus anginosus in a child / Complicated pneumonia with empyema caused by streptococcus anginosus in a child

ABSTRACT Objective: To highlight the pathogenicity of Streptococcus anginosus, which is rare in pediatric patients, but can cause severe infections that are known to have a better outcome when treated early with interventional procedures and prolonged antibiotic therapy. Case description: The patient is a 6-year-old boy with global developmental delay, examined in the emergency room due to fever and respiratory distress. The physical examination and diagnostic workout revealed complicated pneumonia with empyema of the left hemithorax; he started antibiotic therapy and underwent thoracic drainage. Pleural fluid cultures grew Streptococcus anginosus. On day 11, the child had a clinical deterioration with recurrence of fever, hypoxia, and respiratory distress. At this point, considering the causative agent, he was submitted to video-assisted thoracoscopic decortication, with good progress thereafter. Comments: Streptococcus anginosus is a commensal bacterium of the human oral cavity capable of causing severe systemic infections. Although reports of complicated thoracic infections with this agent are rare in the pediatric population, they have been increasing in adults. Streptococcus anginosus has a high capacity to form abscess and empyema, requiring different therapeutic approaches when compared to complicated pneumonia caused by other agents.

RESUMO Objetivo: Alertar para a patogenicidade do Streptococcus anginosus que, apesar de raro em pediatria, pode causar infeções graves que necessitam de tratamento invasivo e antibioterapia de longo curso para obter um melhor prognóstico. Descrição do caso: Criança de seis anos, com atraso do desenvolvimento psicomotor, avaliado no serviço de urgência por febre e dificuldade respiratória. O exame físico, juntamente com os exames complementares, revelou uma pneumonia complicada com empiema no hemitórax esquerdo, tendo iniciado antibioterapia e sido submetido à drenagem do líquido pleural. Foi identificado Streptococcus anginosus nesse líquido. No 11º dia de doença, a criança agravou o seu estado clínico, com recidiva da febre, hipoxemia e dificuldade respiratória. Considerando-se o microrganismo identificado, o paciente foi submetido à decorticação pulmonar por videotoracoscopia, com boa evolução clínica posterior. Comentários: Streptococcus anginosus é uma bactéria comensal da cavidade oral humana, que pode causar infecções sistêmicas graves. Apesar de serem raros os casos descritos em pediatria, têm sido cada vez mais descritas infecções torácicas complicadas em adultos. Esse microrganismo também tem a capacidade de formar abcessos e empiemas, que precisam de intervenções terapêuticas diferentes, quando comparados a pneumonias complicadas causadas por outros agentes.

Internações por Condições Sensíveis à Atenção Primária de Menores de um ano, de 2008 a 2014, no estado de São Paulo, Brasil / Primary Health Care-Sensitive Hospitalizations in children under one year of age, from 2008 to 2014, in the State of São Paulo, Brazil

Resumo Este estudo teve o objetivo de descrever as causas e as tendências de Internações por Condições Sensíveis à Atenção Primária (ICSAP) em menores de um ano, entre 2008 e 2014, no estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Trata-se de um delineamento ecológico, baseado em dados secundários do Sistema de Informações Hospitalares. Classificaram-se as internações segundo o diagnóstico principal e a Lista Brasileira de ICSAP, considerando as seguintes faixas etárias: Neonatais precoce, Neonatal tardia e Pós-neonatal. Para a análise de tendência das internações foram ajustados modelos de regressão linear. Ocorreram 851.713 internações de Menores de um ano, sendo 22,6% por ICSAP. As principais reduções das frequências de internação foram: Pneumonias bacterianas (-7,10%) e Desvios nutricionais (-7,70) em Neonatal precoce. As elevações foram: Doenças relacionadas ao pré-natal e parto (+10,14%) e Doenças imunizáveis e condições evitáveis em Pós-neonatal (+14,13%), com destaque para coqueluche e sífilis congênita. Os resultados mostram uma deficiência no cuidado à saúde infantil na atenção primária no estado de São Paulo, enquanto que as tendências de internações estimadas podem auxiliar no planejamento de estratégias para diminuir os agravos e os gastos no setor terciário de atenção em saúde.

Abstract The scope of this article is to describe the trends of primary health care-sensitive (PHC) hospitalizations in children under one year of age between 2008 and 2014 in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. It is an ecological study with descriptive and analytical characteristics, based on secondary data from the national health information system. Hospitalizations were classified according to the Brazilian list of PHC hospitalizations considering the Early Neonatal, Late Neonatal and Post-Neonatal age groups. Linear regression models were adjusted for trend analysis of the 851,713 hospitalizations of children under one year of age analyzed, of which 22.6% were PHC-related. The main groups with decreases were: Bacterial pneumonia (-7.10%) and Nutritional disorders (-7.70%) in the Early neonatal phase. The main increases were: Disease related to prenatal/childbirth (+10.14%) and Immunosuppressive diseases and avoidable conditions in Post-neonatal (+14.13%) infants, among which pertussis and congenital syphilis were the main causes of hospitalization. The results showed a deficiency in the primary health care system for infants in the State of Sao Paulo. The estimated trends should be used for planning cost-effective strategies to prevent and control causes of hospitalization in children under one year of age.

Hospitalizations due to primary care-sensitive conditions among children under five years of age: cross-sectional study / Internações por condições sensíveis à atenção primária em crianças menores de cinco anos: estudo transversal

ABSTRACT CONTEXT AND OBJECTIVE: Hospitalizations due to primary care-sensitive conditions constitute an important indicator for monitoring the quality of primary healthcare. This study aimed to describe hospitalizations due to primary care-sensitive conditions found among children under five years of age (according to their age and sex), in two cities in Paraíba, Brazil. DESIGN AND SETTING: Cross-sectional study carried out in the municipalities of Cabedelo and Bayeux, in Paraíba, Brazil. METHODS: Data were collected from four public pediatric hospitals in Paraíba that receive children from these municipalities. Hospital admission authorizations were consulted to gather information on the children's profile and the characteristics of their hospitalizations. Differences in the causes of admissions and the respective lengths of hospital stay length were analyzed according to age group and sex. RESULTS: The proportion of hospital admissions due to primary care-sensitive conditions was 82.4%. The most frequent causes were: bacterial pneumonia (59.38%), infectious gastroenteritis and its complications (23.59%) and kidney and urinary tract infection (9.67%). Boys had higher frequency of hospitalizations due to primary care-sensitive conditions than girls. The median hospitalization due to primary care-sensitive conditions was found to be four days. The duration of hospital stays due to primary care-sensitive conditions was significantly longer than those due to conditions that were not sensitive to primary care. CONCLUSIONS: High rates of hospital admissions due to primary care-sensitive conditions were highlighted, especially among children of male sex, with long periods of hospitalization.

RESUMO CONTEXTO E OBJETIVO: As internações por condições sensíveis à atenção primária constituem importante indicador para o monitoramento da qualidade da atenção primária à saúde. O presente estudo objetivou descrever as internações por condições sensíveis à atenção primária em crianças menores de cinco anos (por idade e sexo) em duas cidades da Paraíba. TIPO DE ESTUDO E LOCAL: Estudo transversal realizado nos municípios de Cabedelo e Bayeux, ­Paraíba, Brasil. MÉTODOS: Coletaram-se os dados nos quatro hospitais públicos pediátricos da Paraíba que internam crianças residentes nos municípios estudados. A partir das autorizações de internação hospitalar, colheram-se informações relativas ao perfil da criança e características das internações. Analisaram-se as diferenças nas causas de internações e respectivos tempos de hospitalização segundo faixa etária e sexo. RESULTADOS: A proporção de internação por condição sensível à atenção primária foi de 82,4%. As causas mais frequentes foram: pneumonias bacterianas (59,38%), gastroenterites infecciosas e suas complicações (23,59%) e infecção do rim e trato urinário (9,67%). Meninos apresentaram maior frequência de internações por condições sensíveis à atenção primária do que meninas. Verificou-se mediana de quatro dias de hospitalização para as condições sensíveis à atenção primária. O tempo de hospitalização por condição sensível à atenção primária foi significantemente maior do que o tempo da condição não sensível à atenção primária. CONCLUSÕES: Ressaltam-se altas taxas de internações por condições sensíveis à atenção primária, principalmente em crianças do sexo masculino, com longos períodos de hospitalização.

Hospitalization costs of severe bacterial pneumonia in children: comparative analysis considering different costing methods / Custos hospitalares de pneumonia bacteriana grave em crianças: análise comparativa por diferentes métodos de custeio

ABSTRACT Objective To determine and compare hospitalization costs of bacterial community-acquired pneumonia cases via different costing methods under the Brazilian Public Unified Health System perspective. Methods Cost-of-illness study based on primary data collected from a sample of 59 children aged between 28 days and 35 months and hospitalized due to bacterial pneumonia. Direct medical and non-medical costs were considered and three costing methods employed: micro-costing based on medical record review, micro-costing based on therapeutic guidelines and gross-costing based on the Brazilian Public Unified Health System reimbursement rates. Costs estimates obtained via different methods were compared using the Friedman test. Results Cost estimates of inpatient cases of severe pneumonia amounted to R$ 780,70/$Int. 858.7 (medical record review), R$ 641,90/$Int. 706.90 (therapeutic guidelines) and R$ 594,80/$Int. 654.28 (Brazilian Public Unified Health System reimbursement rates). Costs estimated via micro-costing (medical record review or therapeutic guidelines) did not differ significantly (p=0.405), while estimates based on reimbursement rates were significantly lower compared to estimates based on therapeutic guidelines (p<0.001) or record review (p=0.006). Conclusion Brazilian Public Unified Health System costs estimated via different costing methods differ significantly, with gross-costing yielding lower cost estimates. Given costs estimated by different micro-costing methods are similar and costing methods based on therapeutic guidelines are easier to apply and less expensive, this method may be a valuable alternative for estimation of hospitalization costs of bacterial community-acquired pneumonia in children.

RESUMO Objetivo Determinar e comparar custos hospitalares no tratamento da pneumonia bacteriana adquirida na comunidade por diferentes metodologias de custeio, na perspectiva do Sistema Único de Saúde. Métodos Estudo de custo, com coleta de dados primários de uma amostra de 59 crianças com 28 dias a 35 meses de idade hospitalizadas por pneumonia bacteriana. Foram considerados custos diretos médicos e não médicos. Três metodologias de custeio foram utilizadas: microcusteio por revisão de prontuários, microcusteio considerando diretriz terapêutica e macrocusteio por ressarcimento do Sistema Único de Saúde. Os custos estimados pelas diferentes metodologias foram comparados utilizando o teste de Friedman. Resultados Os custos hospitalares de crianças com pneumonia grave foram R$ 780,70 ($Int. 858.7) por revisão de prontuários, R$ 641,90 ($Int. 706.90) por diretriz terapêutica e R$ 594,80 ($Int. 654.28) por ressarcimento do Sistema Único de Saúde, respectivamente. A utilização de metodologias de microcusteio (revisão de prontuários e diretriz) resultou em estimativas de custos equivalentes (p=0,405), enquanto o custo estimado por ressarcimento foi significativamente menor do que aqueles estimados por diretriz (p<0,001) e por revisão de prontuário (p=0,006), sendo, assim, significativamente diferentes. Conclusão Na perspectiva do Sistema Único de Saúde, existe diferença significativa nos custos estimados quando se utilizam diferentes metodologias, sendo a estimativa por ressarcimento a que resulta em valores menores. Considerando que não há diferença nos valores de custos estimados por diferentes metodologias de microcusteio, a metodologia de custeio por diretriz, de mais fácil e rápida execução, é uma alternativa válida para estimativa de custos de hospitalização por pneumonias bacterianas em crianças.

Neumonía por bacterias atípicas: mycoplasma y Chlamydia pneumoniae ¿qué elementos tenemos para hacer un diagnóstico adecuado y decidir cuándo tratar? / Atypical pneumonia: mycoplasma and chlamydia pneumoniae: making an accurate diagnosis and deciding when to treat

Atypical Pneumonia has been studied for many years. Most clinically relevant atypical organisms involved in pneumonia in children are Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae. Although great progress has been reached in new techniques, still there is no good tool, neither standardized nor accurate for a definitive diagnosis. In other hand, antibiotic therapy is under review due to contradictory evidence to support their use. We present a critical view of actual knowledge and propose an algorithm to proceed in clinical ground.

La neumonía por bacterias atípicas es sujeto de estudio desde hace años. Dentro de las bacterias atípicas más frecuentes y clínicamente relevantes en niños se reconocen Mycoplasma pneumoniae y Chlamydia pneumoniae. A pesar del aumento en el conocimiento de estas infecciones y avance en las técnicas diagnósticas, aun no contamos con una herramienta estandarizada y confiable que permita realizar un adecuado diagnóstico. Por otra parte, la necesidad real de efectuar un tratamiento antibiótico sigue siendo tema de discusión. Se presenta a continuación una revisión crítica del conocimiento actual y una propuesta de su enfrentamiento clínico.

Pneumonia bacteriana em jabuti-piranga (Chelonoidis carbonaria): aspectos clínicos, microbiológicos, radiológicos e terapêutica / Bacterial pneumonia in red-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis carbonaria): clinical aspects, microbiological, radiological and therapeutic

A pneumonia é uma doença respiratória comum na clínica de répteis. Agentes infecciosos são capazes de causar pneumonia primária em répteis mantidos em cativeiro, porém na maioria dos casos, são secundárias a problemas de manejo, higiene e nutricionais. O objetivo desse trabalho foi relatar a ocorrência de pneumonia bacteriana em jabuti-piranga (Chelonoidis carbonaria), e descrever o diagnóstico clínico, microbiológico, radiográfico e a conduta terapêutica. O animal apresentava sinais de distúrbios respiratórios e foi descrito durante a anamnese que houve um diagnostico anterior de pneumonia. Os achados radiográficos foram sugestivos de pneumonia/edema pulmonar. Baseado nos exames radiográficos e sinais clínicos apresentados iniciou-se o tratamento com administração de Cloranfenicol (40mg/kg/SID/IM) por 10 dias. Foram isoladas Klebsiella spp. e Citrobacter spp. da cultura bacteriana realizada da coleta de lavado endotraqueal. Ambas com perfil de resistência múltipla aos antibióticos testados. Instituiu-se protocolo terapêutico utilizando Gentamicina (5mg/kg/IM), em sete aplicações com intervalos de 72h. Após o segundo protocolo terapêutico notou-se melhora dos sinais clínicos do animal, porém foi observada a persistência de secreção nasal. Foi realizado novo exame radiográfico, demonstrando discreta diminuição na opacidade do campo pulmonar direito e nenhuma alteração significativa no campo pulmonar esquerdo na projeção craniocaudal. Devido à permanência do sinal clínico apresentado, nova coleta de material endotraqueal foi realizada, e houve isolamento de Citrobacter spp. e Enterobacter spp. A partir dos resultados obtidos no antibiograma, instituiu-se novo protocolo com uso de amicacina (2,5mg/kg/IM), em sete aplicações com intervalos de 72h. Após antibioticoterapia, outro exame radiológico foi realizado, e demonstrou redução satisfatória do quadro pulmonar, e sinais clínicos...

Pneumonia is a common respiratory disease in clinical of reptiles. Infectious agents are capable of causing primary pneumonia in reptiles maintained in captivity, but in most cases are secondary to problems of management, hygiene and nutrition. The aim of this study was to report the occurrence of bacterial pneumonia in red-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis carbonaria), and describe the clinical, microbiologic, radiographic and therapeutic management. The animal showed signs of respiratory disorders and has been described in the clinical history before diagnosis of pneumonia. The radiographic findings were suggestive of pneumonia/pulmonary edema. Based on the displayed radiographic examination and clinical signs began treatment with administration of chloramphenicol (40mg/kg/SID/IM) for ten days. Were isolated Klebsiella spp. and Citrobacter spp. bacterial culture done collecting endotracheal lavage. Both with multiple antibiotic resistance profile tested. Treatment protocol was instituted using gentamicin (5mg/kg/IM) applications into seven intervals of 72h. There was improvement in clinical signs of the animal, but the presence of nasal secretion was still observed. New radiographic examination, demonstrating slight decrease in the opacity of the right lung field and no significant change in the left lung field in craniocaudal projection was performed. Because of the persistence of clinical signs presented new collection endotracheal material was performed, and there was isolation of Citrobacter spp. and Enterobacter spp. From the results obtained in the antibiogram, was instituted new protocol with the use of amikacin (2.5mg/kg/IM) applications into seven intervals of 72h. After antibiotic therapy, other radiological examination was performed, and showed satisfactory reduction in pulmonary function and clinical signs...

Neumonía Neumocócica Bacteriémica en el adulto / Bacteremic Pneumococcal pneumonia in adult

Objetivo: el objetivo del trabajo fue describir los resultados encontrados en los pacientes con neumonía neumocócica bacteriémica en nuestro medio y compararlos con otros ensayos similares. Pacientes y métodos: se realizó un estudio observacional retrospectivo de pacientes mayores de 15 años con neumonía aguda de la comunidad o neumonía intrahospitalaria con al menos un hemocultivo positivo para S. pneumoniae, internados desde enero 2004 hasta diciembre 2010. Resultados: se registraron 93 pacientes, 70 varones y 23 mujeres con una edad promedio de 50 años. La incidencia fue de siete casos cada 1.000 ingresos. Ningún paciente había recibido la vacuna antineumocócica antes de la internación. Se registraron 20 pacientes con HIV positivo y 5 pacientes con neumonía neumocócica intrahospitalaria. Los hábitos y comorbilidades más frecuente fueron el tabaquismo, etilismo, diabetes mellitus, EPOC, HIV y hepatopatía. Se constató en el grupo de bajo riesgo 42 pacientes. Se encontraron 87 muestras sensibles a penicilina, Se detectó una mortalidad del 9.6% y un promedio de once días de internación. El análisis multivariado determinó a las variables shock séptico y el alcoholismo como factores de riesgo de mortalidad. En 80 pacientes se redujo el tratamiento empírico endovenoso y en 46 se realizó de manera óptima. Conclusión: se describió en el trabajo la alta incidencia de neumonía neumocócica bacteriémica, los bajos niveles de resistencia del S. pneumoniae a la penicilina, la elevada reducción óptima antibiótica y el shock séptico y el alcoholismo como factores de riesgo de mortalidad

Objective: The objective was to describe the results found in patients with bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia in our environment and compare them with similar trials. Patients and Methods: A retrospective observational study of patients older than 15 years with acute community-acquired pneumonia or hospital-acquired pneumonia with at least one positive blood culture for S. pneumoniae, admitted from January 2004 to December 2010 was performed. Results: 93 patients, 70 males and 23 females were recorded with an average age of 50 years. The incidence was seven cases per 1000 admissions. No patient had received pneumococcal vaccine before admission. 20 HIV positive patients and 5 patients with nosocomial pneumococcal pneumonia were recorded. Habits and most frequent comorbidities were smoking, alcohol consumption, diabetes mellitus, COPD, HIV and liver disease. It was found in the group of 42 low-risk patients. 87 penicillin-sensitive samples were found, a mortality of 9.6% and an average of eleven days in hospital was detected. Multivariate analysis determined the septic shock variables and alcohol as risk factors for mortality. In 80 patients the treatment was reduced empirical intravenous and 46 was performed optimally. Conclusion: the work described in the high incidence of bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia, low levels of resistance of S. pneumoniae to penicillin, high optimal reduction and septic shock antibiotic and alcohol as risk factors for mortality

Neumonía necrotizante en niños hospitalizados en el hospital pediátrico Centro Hospitalario Pereira Rossell en el año 2010 / Necrotizing pneumonia in children hospitalized at children's hospital Centro Hospitalario Pereira Rossell Hospital in 2010

Tras la incorporación en Uruguay de vacunas conjugadas neumocócicas (PCV), se registró un descenso en las hospitalizaciones por neumonía bacteriana adquirida en la comunidad (NAC) en el Hospital Pediátrico del Centro Hospitalario Pereira Rossell (HP-CHPR). Así mismo, en los últimos años se asistió a niños que desarrollaron neumonía necrotizante (NN). Se denomina NN a casos de NAC en los que la inflamación determina isquemia y necrosis del parénquima, con formación de neumatoceles y fístula broncopleural, cuando ésta se produce en la periferia del pulmón. Son pacientes graves, con mal estado general, fiebre persistente y requieren hospitalizaciones prolongadas. Los neumatoceles se diagnostican en la radiografía y/o la tomografía computada de tórax. Se realizó la descripción de los niños con NAC hospitalizados en el HP-CHPR, que evolucionaron a NN en el año 2010. Se diagnosticaron 28 niños, con un promedio de edad de 36 meses, la mayoría sanos y eutróficos. Los neumatoceles fueron identificados en la radiografía de tórax en casi todos los pacientes. Presentaron en promedio 7 días de fiebre. La mayoría evolucionó con complicaciones pulmonares y/o extrapulmonares. Diez niños requirieron ingreso a unidad de terapia intensiva. Las hospitalizaciones tuvieron una duración de hasta 43 días. Ningún paciente falleció. En la mitad de los casos se identificó Streptococcus pneumoniae. Todas las cepas aisladas eran sensibles a penicilina. Ninguno de los pacientes en los que se aisló cepas contenidas en las PCV estaba adecuadamente vacunado. La NN es una complicación grave de NAC, que ocurre en niños sanos. Determina hospitalizaciones prolongadas y gran morbilidad. Es importante mantener la vigilancia de los ingresos hospitalarios por NAC y sus complicaciones luego de la vacunación universal con PCV...

Antibiotic treatment schemes for very severe community-acquired pneumonia in children: a randomized clinical study / Esquemas de tratamiento antibiótico para la neumonía extrahospitalaria muy grave en niños: estudio clínico aleatorizado

OBJECTIVE: To compare clinical response to initial empiric treatment with oxacillin plus ceftriaxone and amoxicillin plus clavulanic acid in hospitalized children diagnosed with very severe community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). METHODS: A prospective randomized clinical study was conducted among children 2 months to 5 years old with a diagnosis of very severe CAP in the pediatric ward of São Paulo State University Hospital in Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil, from April 2007 to May 2008. Patients were randomly divided into two groups by type of treatment: an oxacillin/ceftriaxone group (OCG, n = 48) and an amoxicillin/clavulanic acid group (ACG, n = 56). Analyzed outcomes were: time to clinical improvement (fever and tachypnea), time on oxygen therapy, length of stay in hospital, need to widen antimicrobial spectrum, and complications (including pleural effusion). RESULTS: The two groups did not differ statistically for age, sex, symptom duration before admission, or previous antibiotic treatment. Time to improve tachypnea was less among ACG patients than OCG patients (4.8 ± 2.2 versus 5.8 ± 2.4 days respectively; P = 0.028), as was length of hospital stay (11.0 ± 6.2 versus 14.4 ± 4.5 days respectively; P = 0.002). There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups for fever improvement time, time on oxygen therapy, need to widen antimicrobial spectrum, or frequency of pleural effusion. CONCLUSIONS: Both treatment plans are effective in treating very severe CAP in 2-month-to 5-year-old hospitalized children. The only analyzed outcome that favored amoxicillin/clavulanic acid treatment was time required to improve tachypnea.

OBJETIVO: Comparar la respuesta clínica al tratamiento empírico inicial con oxacilina más ceftriaxona frente a amoxicilina más ácido clavulánico en niños hospitalizados con diagnóstico de neumonía extrahospitalaria muy grave. MÉTODOS: Se llevó a cabo un estudio clínico prospectivo aleatorizado en niños de 2 meses a 5 años de edad con diagnóstico de neumonía extrahospitalaria muy grave en la sala de pediatría del Hospital Universitario del Estado de São Paulo en Botucatu, São Paulo, Brasil, entre abril del 2007 y mayo del 2008. Los pacientes se dividieron aleatoriamente en dos grupos según el tratamiento administrado: un grupo recibió oxacilina/ceftriaxona (n = 48) y otro amoxicilina/ácido clavulánico (n = 56). Los criterios de valoración analizados fueron el tiempo hasta la mejoría clínica (de la fiebre y la taquipnea), el tiempo de administración de oxigenoterapia, la duración de la internación, la necesidad de ampliar el espectro antibiótico y las complicaciones (como el derrame pleural). RESULTADOS: Los dos grupos no presentaban diferencias estadísticas con respecto a la edad, el sexo, la duración de los síntomas antes de la internación o el tratamiento previo con antibióticos. El tiempo hasta la mejoría de la taquipnea fue menor en los pacientes tratados con amoxicilina/ácido clavulánico que en los que recibieron oxacilina/ceftriaxona (4,8 ± 2,2 días frente a 5,8 ±2,4 días, respectivamente; P = 0,028), y también fue menor la duración de la internación (11,0 ± 6,2 días frente a 14,4 ± 4,5 días, respectivamente; P = 0,002). No hubo diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre los dos grupos en relación con el tiempo hasta la mejoría de la fiebre, el tiempo de administración de oxigenoterapia, la necesidad de ampliar el espectro antibiótico ni la frecuencia de derrame pleural. CONCLUSIONES: Ambos esquemas de tratamiento son eficaces para tratar la neumonía extrahospitalaria muy grave en niños de 2 meses a 5 años de edad hospitalizados. El único criterio de valoración analizado que favoreció el tratamiento con amoxicilina/ ácido clavulánico fue el tiempo hasta la mejoría de la taquipnea.

Pneumonias comunitárias em adultos: como eu trato. Temas de Atualização e Revisão em Clínica Médica / Community pneumonias in adults: how I treat? Themes of Updating and Revision in Medical Clinic

Pneumonia comunitária é um problema comum na prática de clínica médica. O diagnóstico deve ser pensado em casos febris e(ou) com sinais e sintomas respiratórios, nos quais a radiografia torácica é fundamental nesta caracterização. Uma vez estabelecido o diagnóstico, devemos estratificar o paciente por grupos de risco para uma evolução desfavorável, aplicando critérios já bem estudados (CURB-65 e PSI) para definir hospitalização e a intensidade de cuidados médicos necessários. A avaliação clínico-epidemiológica ajuda na seleção da antibioticoterapia mais eficaz. Parâmetros de acompanhamento pragmáticos da resposta terapêutica, incluindo período pós-alta, são fornecidos.

Community acquired pneumonia is a fairly common problem in general practice. Clinical suspicion should arise in febrile cases, with or whitout respiratory symptoms, in which a chest radiograph is pivotal in the diagnosis. Once the diagnosis has been clinched, the patient should be risk stratified by groups, using well stablished criteria (CURB-65, PSI) to define hospital admission and level of medical care. Clinical epidemiologic analysis assists in the definition of the proper antimicrobial agent. Pragmatic therapeutic parameters of clinical response are provided (including post-dischargel).

Impacto da implantação de um guia terapêutico para o tratamento de pneumonia nosocomial adquirida na unidade de terapia intensiva em hospital universitário / Impact of the implementation of a therapeutic guideline on the treatment of nosocomial pneumonia acquired in the intensive care unit of a university hospital

OBJETIVO: Avaliar o impacto da implantação de um guia terapêutico para o tratamento empírico de pneumonia hospitalar. MÉTODOS: Foi realizado um ensaio clínico com controle histórico, no período de junho de 2002 a junho de 2003, em pacientes internados na unidade de terapia intensiva (UTI) que adquiriram pneumonia hospitalar. Todos foram tratados de acordo com um guia terapêutico desenvolvido pela Comissão de Controle de Infecção Hospitalar da instituição (grupo com intervenção). Para o controle, foram analisados os prontuários dos pacientes que adquiriram pneumonia hospitalar no período de junho de 2000 a junho de 2001 (grupo sem intervenção). Foram determinados taxa de mortalidade, tempo médio de tratamento e tempo de internação na UTI e no hospital dos pacientes que adquiriram pneumonia hospitalar. RESULTADOS: A mortalidade relacionada à pneumonia foi menor no grupo tratado de acordo com o guia terapêutico (26 x 53,6 por cento; p = 0,00). Quanto à mortalidade geral, não houve diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os dois períodos (51 x 57,9 por cento; p = 0,37). Também não foi encontrada diferença quanto aos tipos de microorganismos isolados, tempo de tratamento e tempo de internação na UTI e no hospital. CONCLUSÃO: A implantação do guia terapêutico para tratamento de pneumonia hospitalar adquirida em UTI pode ser eficaz na diminuição das taxas de mortalidade.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact that the implementation of therapeutic guidelines has on the empirical treatment of nosocomial pneumonia. METHODS: A clinical trial, using historical controls and involving current ICU patients who had acquired nosocomial pneumonia, was carried out from June of 2002 to June of 2003. All were treated according to therapeutic guidelines developed by the Commission for Nosocomial Infection Control of the institution (group with intervention). As controls, the medical charts of the patients who acquired nosocomial pneumonia between June of 2000 and June of 2001 (group without intervention) were analyzed. Mortality and mean treatment period, as well as the length of hospital and ICU stays, were determined for the patients who acquired nosocomial pneumonia. RESULTS: Mortality associated with pneumonia was lower in the group treated according to the therapeutic guidelines (26 vs. 53.6 percent; p = 0.00). As for overall mortality, there was no statistically significant difference between the two periods (51 vs. 57.9 percent; p = 0.37). There was also no difference in the type of microorganisms isolated, treatment period, length of hospital stay or length of ICU stay. CONCLUSION: The implementation of therapeutic guidelines for the treatment of nosocomial pneumonia acquired in the ICU can be efficacious in decreasing mortality rates.

Evaluación y manejo de la neumonía del adulto adquirida en la comunidad / Evaluation and management of the pneumonia in adults acquired within the community

La neumonía adquirida en la comunidad (NAC) constituye una causa frecuente de consulta ambulatoria, hospitalización y muerte en la población adulta de los países desarrollados y en vías de desarrollo. El espectro de gravedad de la enfermedad es muy variable, fluctuando desde pacientes jóvenes sin comorbilidad ni factores de riesgo de manejo ambulatorio hasta pacientes críticamente enfermos que requieren hospitalización en unidades de cuidado crítico. La evaluación clínica sistemática (anamnesis y examen físico) y los exámenes de laboratorio básicos (hemograma, proteína C reactiva, pruebas de función renal, radiografía de tórax) disponibles en la unidad de emergencia permiten que el médico establezca el diagnóstico clínico-radiográfico y evalúe la gravedad del enfermo, lo que le permitirá decidir el lugar de manejo, la extensión del estudio microbiológico y el tratamiento específico. Además, la identificación y el tratamiento de las complicaciones de la neumonía y la sepsis acompañante deberían ser considerados por el médico de la unidad de emergencia al evaluar pacientes críticamente enfermos.

Pneumonia is one of the most common conditions for which patients seek emergency care. It is a challenging infection in that the spectrum of illness ranges from the nontoxic patient appropriate for outpatient antibiotics treatment to the critically ill patient requiring intensive care hospitalization. Current data and diagnostic technology provide the emergency physician with the tools for an appropriately rapid evaluation and consideration of the differential diagnosis. The rational application of severity assessment tools and local clinical guidelines recently published allow for optimal empirical antibiotic treatment and risk stratification for the best disposition. Although antibiotic-resistant organisms increasingly are being identified, patients continue to benefit from early institution of standard emergency department treatment. Finally, identification and early treatment of the complications of pneumonia and accompanying sepsis must be considered by the emergency physicians when evaluating critically ill patients.

Manejo de la neumonía comunitaria del adulto mayor en el ámbito ambulatorio / Ambulatory management of community acquired pneumonia in the elderly

Community Acquired Pneumonia (CAP) is the first cause of death by respiratory disease in Chile and the first specific cause of death in people over 80 years of age. The geriatric population has a greater risk of suffering pneumonia, its complications and consequently dying. This is not only related to chronological age but also to certain factors related to ageing such as the presence of comorbidity, malnutrition, and cognitive impairment. An atypical presentation that delays the diagnosis and treatment also increases the risk of complications. CAP in the elderly is caused by the same pathogens that cause it in younger patients. S pneumoniae is the main pathogen followed by viral infections particularly in winter. An important strategy to reduce CAP related health costs, is the identification of patients who are at low risk of complications and who therefore could be managed at home. Optimum management of CAP in the elderly includes early diagnosis and the definition of clinical severity, early antibiotic treatment at the right dose and for an adequate length of time and a correct decision whether the patient should be managed in hospital or at home.

Micobacteriosis pulmonar en pacientes HIV negativos en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, años 2003-2004 / Pulmonary mycobacteriosis in non HIV patients, Buenos Aires City, 2003-2004

La enfermedad provocada por micobacterias ambientales es sospechada fundamentalmente en pacientesHIV positivos o con otras enfermedades de base. En nuestro país no hay información actualizadaacerca de la prevalencia, tratamiento y evolución de esta enfermedad en pacientes inmunocompetentes.Presentamos 10 casos de enfermedad pulmonar por micobacterias ambientales en pacientes inmunocompetentes:diagnóstico clínico-bacteriológico, tratamiento y evolución.

Pulmonary disease,due to Mycobacteria other than tuberculosis, is mainly suspected in HIV + patients, or underlyingother diseases. In our country, there is no updated information on the prevalence of this pulmonarydisease, its treatment and evolution in immucocompetent patients. We present 10 cases of pulmonary diseasedue to Mycobacteria other than tuberculosis in non HIV patients: clinical-bacteriological diagnosis, treatment andevolution.

Neumonía complicada por Streptococcus pyogene, en una preescolar previamente sana / Pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pyogenes in a pre-school children

La neumonía es una causa frecuente de mortalidad en niños. El streptococcus pyogenes (Sp) es un agente etiológico poco frecuente de neumonía adquirida en la comunidad, pero puede producir infecciones invasoras severas rápidamente progresivas. En las últimas décadas se ha descrito un aumento en la incidencia de infecciones invasoras por Sp en la población general. Dentro de éstas la neumonía ocupa el tercer lugar en frecuencia. La presentación clínica de la neumonía por Sp es similar a la neumonía neumocócica, con inicio abrupto de fiebre, tos productiva y calofríos. Su diagnóstico y tratamiento adecuado son importantes para prevenir complicaciones secundarias como el síndrome de shock tóxico. En el presente artículo se describe el caso clínico de un preescolar de 4 años con una neumonía complicada por Sp y se revisa la literatura con respecto al diagnóstico y tratamiento.

Neumonía grave del adulto adquirida en la comunidad / Severe community-acquired pneumonia in adults

Patients with severe community acquired pneumonia (CAP) need continuous surveillance and monitoring at intensive care units (ICU), where they can receive specialized support as mechanical ventilation and/or hemodynamic support. Patients that require ICU admittance represent 10 to 30% of all patients interned because a pneumonia. In this category, high complication rate, prolonged hospital stay and high mortality rate are the rule. The American Thoracic Society (ATS) criteria for severe pneumonia establishes the following main criteria: necessity of mechanical ventilation and presence of septic shock; minor criteria: systolic blood pressure < 90 mmHg, radiological multilobar involvement and PaO2/FiO2 < 250 mmHg. British Thoracic Society (BTS) criteria for severe CAP are: respiratory rate over 30 breaths/min, diastolic blood pressure under 60 mmHg, BUN > 20 mg/dl and mental confusion. In all patients with CAP it is recommended the evaluation of its severity at admission. This evaluation should be done in conjunction with an experienced physician, and if criteria for poor prognosis are met, an early admission to ICU is recommended. ATS and BTS modified criteria (CURB) are useful in this procedure. In severely ill patients with CAP it is recommended to perform the following microbiological analysis: sputum Gram stain and culture, blood culture, pleural fluid Gram stain and culture, if present and tapped, Legionella pneumophila urine antigen test, influenza A and B antigen detection tests (epidemic period: autumn and winter), and serology for atypical bacteria (Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae).

El paciente con neumonía grave adquirida en la comunidad es aquel que necesita de la vigilancia y monitorización de una Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos (UCI) donde, si es necesario, puede recibir apoyo especializado con conexión a un ventilador mecánico y/o soporte hemodinámico. Los pacientes que requieren tratamiento en la UCI representan entre 10 y 30% de los pacientes hospitalizados por neumonía. En esta categoría, la tasa de complicaciones, estadía en el hospital y mortalidad son elevadas. Los criterios para neumonía grave de la Sociedad Americana de Tórax (American Thoracic Society-ATS) son: criterios mayores: necesidad de ventilación mecánica y presencia de shock séptico; criterios menores: presión sistólica < 90 mmHg, compromiso radiográfico multilobar y PaO2/FiO2 < 250 mmHg. Los criterios para NAC grave de la Sociedad Británica de Tórax (British Thoracic Society-BTS) son: frecuencia respiratoria mayor de 30 resp/min, presión diastólica menor de 60 mmHg, nitrógeno ureico > 20 mg/dl y confusión mental. En todos los pacientes con neumonía adquirida en la comunidad se recomienda evaluar la gravedad de la infección en el momento de su admisión al hospital. Esta evaluación es preferible realizarla junto a un médico con experiencia y, si presenta criterios de mal pronóstico, se sugiere trasladar precozmente a la UCI. Son útiles para esta evaluación los criterios de la ATS y los criterios de la BTS modificados (CURB). En los pacientes con neumonía grave adquirida en la comunidad se recomienda solicitar los siguientes exámenes microbiológicos: tinción de Gram y cultivo de expectoración, hemocultivos, tinción de Gram y cultivo de líquido pleural, antígeno urinario de Legionella pneumophila, antígenos de virus influenza A y B (período epidémico de otoño-invierno), y serología para microorganismos atípicos (Mycoplasma pneumoniae y Chlamydia pneumoniae).

Reglas de predicción en neumonía adquirida en la comunidad / Prediction rules in community acquired pneumonia

The determination of site of care is an essential decision in the management of patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Patients with mild to moderate CAP may be safely treated at home. Instead, those patients with severe pneumonia must be hospitalized to assure an effective treatment. Severity of CAP is associated with mortality that depends both on the patient's frailty and the intensity of lung inflammation. Because there is no single predictor factor to assess prognosis, diverse prediction rules have been developed to establish severity of CAP and guide the decision of site of care. In our country a new prediction rule, derived from hospitalized patents that incorporate simple clinical variables has been developed. However, this rule requires to be validated in the ambulatory setting before its wide spread use is suggested. Prediction rules are objective and relatively accurate models to assess prognosis that may aid clinicians to evaluate patient's risks and to improve hospitalization decisions. Nevertheless, although the prediction rules may guide the initial management of patients with CAP, they are not intended to replace the clinical judgment, which remains as the art of medicine.

Potentially serious infections in the aging person: diagnosis, treatment and prevention

Infections in the elderly patient are a challenge, since the classical signs of infection are absent or ill defined. The present paper describes the presentation, diagnosis, clinical manifestations and treatment for a selected group of potential serious infections including influenza, bacterial pneumonia, urinary tract infections as well as infections caused by multiresistant bacteria, like vacomycin-resistant enterococcus and methicillin resistant S. aureus. We conclude with the need for prevention in the older person with the use of vaccines, specifically the influenza and pneumococcal vaccine as well as the prevention of urinary infections. Influenza is a significant cause of morbidity, whose ill effects can be prevented in many older persons with the use of a vaccine. The use in prophylaxis and treatment of antiviral agents like amantadine, rimatadine, and oseltamivir is presented. Bacterial pneumonia is one of the leading causes of death in the USA among the older persons. The emergence of drug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae leads to the consideration as empiric therapy the newer fluoroquinolones or the use of third or fourth generation cephalosporis. Of importance is the use of pneumococcal vaccine among people age 60 or above. The frequency of urinary tract infections among the elderly is of primary although in many instances important do not require treatment. When infection of the urinary tract is diagnosed, most authors use a fluoroquinolone as empiric theraphy. The emergence of multiresistant bacteria like methicillin resistant S. aureus and or vancomycin resistant enterococci leads to the need to consider new agents like quinipristin-dalfopristin, linezolid and deptomycin in the management of such patients.

Neumonía por virus parainfluenza 3 en paciente inmunocomprometido / Parainfluenza 3 pneumonia in an immunocompromised patient

Un paciente de 45 años bajo tratamiento corticoidal por una probable sarcoidosis y una pancitopenia moderada ingresa por una neumonía que no responde a antibióticos ni a tratamiento antimicótico indicado a raíz del aislamiento de Aspergillus fumigatus en expectoración. Desarrolla una insuficiencia respiratoria progresiva e hipotensión y una inmunofluorescencia para virus parainfluenza 3 resulta positiva. Fallece al séptimo día y la necropsia muestra una neumonía necrotizante, daño alveolar difuso y abundantes partículas virales.